![]() Consider, for example, a very specific quantitative ability called subitizing. At the narrow end of this dimension are theories that apply to a small number of closely related phenomena. This theory has been applied to a wide variety of phenomena, including the persistence of irrational beliefs and behaviors (e.g., smoking), the effectiveness of certain persuasion and sales techniques (e.g., asking for a small favor before asking for a big one), and even placebo effects. Cognitive dissonance theory, for example, assumes that when people hold inconsistent beliefs, this creates mental discomfort that they are motivated to reduce by changing one or both of the beliefs. At the broad end of this dimension are theories that apply to many diverse phenomena. Still, contemporary theories in psychology can vary in their scope. ![]() In addition, they have not been particularly successful at organizing or predicting the range and complexity of human behavior at the level of detail that scientific researchers usually seek. Such theories have fallen out of favor in scientific psychology, however, because they tend to be imprecise and difficult to test. Freud and his followers, for example, applied his theory not only to understanding psychological disorders but also to slips of the tongue and other everyday errors, dreaming, sexuality, art, politics, and even civilization itself (Fine, 1979). Many early psychological theories were extremely broad in that they attempted to interpret essentially all human behavior. Theories in psychology also vary widely in their scope-the number and diversity of the phenomena they explain or interpret. They are especially appropriate in the later stages of research when the phenomena of interest have been described in detail Formal theories tend to be more difficult to create and to understand-sometimes requiring a certain amount of mathematical or computer programming background-but they also tend to be more precise in their predictions and therefore easier to test. They are especially appropriate, however, in the early stages of research when the phenomena of interest have not yet been described in detail. Informal theories tend to be easier to create and to understand but less precise in their predictions, which can make them more difficult to test. ![]() īoth informal and formal theories have their place in psychological research. For more on this formal theory-including an interactive version-see. A theory of classical conditioning that features an equation describing how the strength of the association between unconditioned and conditioned stimuli changes when the two are paired. Read about Kahneman’s Nobel Prize work at. Psychologist Daniel Kahneman won the Nobel Prize in economics based in part on prospect theory. A formal theory of decision making under uncertainty. A comprehensive theory of human cognition that is akin to a programming language, within which more specific models can be created. The following formal theories are among the best known and most successful in the field. People who are not familiar with scientific psychology are sometimes surprised to learn that psychological theories can take the form of mathematical equations and computer programs.
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